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After the Second World War, the United States
consolidated its role as the world's most powerful
nation. The Americans helped the war-torn countries of
Western Europe with reconstruction and promised
political support. The purpose was to stop the Soviet
Union from extending its communist influence. This power
struggle - the Cold War - was expressed in, among
others, the Korean War, the Cuba crisis, the Vietnam War
and the nuclear superpower of both superpowers. Only
with the fall of Communism and the Soviet Union in 1989
- 1991 did the conditions change. Following the
terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001,
President George W Bush launched a new global war, the
war on terrorism.
When World War II was over, Europe was in ruins and
the United States was the world's leading economic and
political superpower. In the new role, the United States
assumed a great responsibility for the reconstruction of
the war-torn countries.
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ABBREVIATIONFINDER:
List of most commonly used acronyms containing United States. Also includes historical, economical and political aspects of the country.
The UN was founded in 1945 with the goal of securing
a lasting peace. The Marshall Aid was a
comprehensive US relief program for reconstruction in
Europe. The United States also dominated new global
lending institutions such as the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), which became
important instruments to facilitate a recovery. The free
trade agreement Gatt came to promote a freer world trade
(and was later transformed into the World Trade
Organization, WTO). Through the Truman Doctrine,
the United States promised financial and political
assistance to countries in Europe that felt threatened
by the Soviet Union. In order to strengthen Europe's
future security, in 1949 the Atlantic Pact (NATO) was
formed, in which the member states promised to rescue
each other in the event of an external attack.
 Harry Truman, who took over the presidency after
Roosevelt's death in April 1945, continued the
representative's reform work in the economic and social
field. The 1952 presidential election was won by
Republican war hero Dwight Eisenhower, who pursued a
more conservative policy without tearing down the social
safety net.
In the 1950-1953 Korean War, the United States
participated in South Korea's side against Communist
North Korea. The war and the growing confrontation
between the Western countries and the Soviet Union
reinforced anti-communist sentiments in the United
States. In the 1950s, Senator Joseph McCarthy led
investigations that degenerated into pure witch-hunting
for dissent. A number of politicians, trade union
leaders, and cultural personalities were often alleged
to be communist sympathizers. Some ended up in prison
and many more lost their jobs.
Generational change with Kennedy
A political generation shift came when 43-year-old
Democrat John F Kennedy won the 1960 presidential
election. Kennedy pledged new social reforms under the
New Frontier colloquial name and cautiously
supported the black civil rights movement that had begun
to emerge during the 1950s as racial oppositions
hardened.
Kennedy was quickly thrown into several foreign
policy conflicts. He gave his support in 1961 to the
"Pig Bay Invasion," a group of exile Cubans'
unsuccessful attempts to invade Cuba to overthrow
Communist leader Fidel Castro. The following year, the
so-called Cuba crisis was close to causing a major war
with the Soviet Union. The crisis was triggered when the
United States discovered that the Soviet Union was in
the process of building nuclear weapons launching
ramparts in Cuba. After 13 days of war on the war,
Moscow agreed to the dismantling of the ramps and the
removal of the nuclear weapons robots. The United States
secretly promised to remove deployed robots at Turkey's
border with the Soviet Union.
The Vietnam War is escalating
Under Kennedy, the US involvement in the Vietnam War,
which began in the 1950s, increased. The motive for US
intervention was to curb the progress of communism in
Asia. The United States increased the number of military
advisers to the South Vietnamese regime in its war
against the FNL guerrillas, which were supported by
North Vietnam, China and the Soviet Union.
In the arms race with the Soviet Union, Kennedy took
a tough stance and he succeeded in instilling an
increased faith in the future among Americans. To this
was contributed the great investment in the US space
program. His stated goal that the United States would be
the first to send people to the moon was realized on the
first lunar landing in 1969. However,
Kennedy himself was assassinated in November 1963,
during a visit to Dallas, Texas. According to the
official story, he was shot to death by a lone killer,
Lee Harvey Oswald, but since the shots fell, conspiracy
theories have circulated.
Lyndon Johnson takes over
Kennedy was succeeded by his Vice President Lyndon B.
Johnson. With his social reform program Great
Society, Johnson declared "the war on poverty" and
enforced strengthened civil rights laws introduced by
Kennedy. Still, Johnson is most remembered for his
escalation of the Vietnam War that led to national
divide and one of America's most serious domestic
political crises. Student protests and demonstrations
combined with violent racial riots helped Johnson not
run for re-election in 1968, the tumultuous year of
riots when both the civil rights movement's Martin
Luther King and Democratic presidential candidate Robert
Kennedy, John Kennedy's younger brother, were shot dead.
Winning the presidential election was Republican
Richard Nixon, who lost the election against Kennedy in
a marginal way in 1960. Nixon claimed he had a plan to
reach peace in Vietnam, but instead intensified the US
warfare that also extended to Cambodia and Laos. At the
same time, Nixon and his Foreign Minister Henry
Kissinger conducted successful diplomacy that led to
relaxation and improved relations with the Soviet Union
and China.
The Watergate scandal shakes the United
States
Negotiations with Moscow in 1972 resulted in an
agreement to limit the number of long-range nuclear
weapons, an agreement called Salt 1 (Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks). In the same year, Nixon made a
historic visit to Beijing that opened the door to China
that had been closed since the communist revolution in
1949. After the October war between Israel and the Arab
states in 1973, efforts also began to establish a
dialogue with Israel's Arab neighbors.
Nixon was re-elected in 1972 in a landslide victory
even though the so-called Watergate scandal had started
to roll up. The deal began in June 1972 when police
arrested five men who, on behalf of Nixon's campaign
committee, broke into the Democrats' party headquarters
in the Watergate building in Washington. Then came a
series of revelations of how Nixon tried to blackmail
the White House's role in the scandal. The many
irregularities that came to light led Congress to
initiate a judicial process against the president. Faced
with the threat of being deposed, Nixon chose to resign,
in August 1974. The Watergate scandal, like the Vietnam
War, left stinging wounds on American society.
Peacemaking in the Middle East
Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford,
who pardoned his representative and oversaw America's
humiliating departure from Vietnam in 1975. Ford became
just a bracket on the presidential post as he lost the
1976 election to Democrat Jimmy Carter.
Carter introduced what he called a more moral foreign
policy that would promote democracy and human rights. He
celebrated his greatest foreign policy triumph in 1978
when he got Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and
Egypt's President Anwar Sadat to the negotiating table.
This led to the Camp David agreement and peace between
Egypt and Israel.
At the end of 1979, the staff of the US embassy in
Tehran was taken into custody by Iranian students. The
hostage drama that followed lasted for over a year.
That, along with financial difficulties after the 1970s
oil crises, contributed to Carter losing the 1980
presidential election against Republican Ronald Reagan.
Reaganomics is deregulating the economy
The deeply conservative Reagan succeeded in restoring
the optimism of the future with its economic program
aimed at reducing taxes and regulations, as well as
increasing appropriations for the defense and at the
same time reducing other federal spending
("Reaganomics"). But the idea that it would be possible
to combine tax cuts and an investment in the military
with a fiscal restraint did not hold. Instead, the
budget deficit was pushed up to record levels.
In foreign policy, Reagan led a tough anti-communist
line. To prevent the spread of communism, the United
States invaded the small Caribbean island state of
Grenada in 1983. The left-wing regime in Nicaragua was
isolated by trade embargo and the mining of its ports.
The United States actively supported Nicaragua's
anti-communist guerrilla, contras, with both
money and advice.
At the same time, the attitude towards the Soviet
Union hardened. Nuclear talks were interrupted and new
medium-range nuclear weapons began to be deployed in
Western Europe as part of US armaments. However,
relations improved between the superpowers after Reagan
was re-elected by a large majority in 1984 and Michail
Gorbachev took over as new president of the Soviet Union
in 1985. The disarmament negotiations were resumed and
in 1987 an agreement was signed aimed at reducing the
number of nuclear weapons (the Intermediate Nuclear
Forces Treaty). The agreement took on a symbolic
significance, even though only a small part of the total
nuclear arsenal was included.
During Reagan's last two years in power, the White
House was hit by several scandals. The most serious was
the Iran-contras raft where employees of the White House
secretly sold weapons to Iran via Israel. In exchange,
Iran would persuade pro-Iranian groups to release
Americans held hostage in Lebanon. Part of the proceeds
from the arms sales were used to support the Contras
guerrillas in Nicaragua.
George Bush and the Kuwait War
Reagan was succeeded by his Vice President George
Bush (or George H W Bush, to separate him from his son
who later became President) who won the election in
1988. Bush began his tenure in trying to reduce the
budget deficit raised during the Reagan era. While
working to get the legal side on the budget, Bush broke
an important election promise not to raise any taxes.
That promise of failure came to haunt him throughout his
time in the White House.
Bush soon had reason to concentrate on foreign
policy. When the Berlin Wall collapsed in 1989,
relations with Moscow improved further and the United
States, along with other industrialized countries,
offered financial assistance to the Soviet Union. Bush
and Gorbachev signed the 1991 Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty to reduce the arsenal of
long-range nuclear weapons. Following the dissolution of
the Soviet Union later that year, an era of cooperation
took place instead of confrontation between Washington
and Moscow, although mutual disbelief persisted on many
levels.
When Iraq occupied neighboring Kuwait in the summer
of 1990, President Bush took the initiative to send a
US-led multinational force with UN approval to the
Persian Gulf. Following massive aerial and missile
attacks against Iraqi targets in early 1991, the regime
in Baghdad was forced to join a ceasefire in March of
that year. The success of "Operation Desert Storm," as
the military intervention was called, lifted Bush's
popularity to record highs in the United States and his
reelection seemed assured.
Bill Clinton popular despite scandal
However, when the election movement approached in
1992, the US economy had weakened. It helped Bush lose
the election to Bill Clinton, a formerly little known
Democratic governor from Arkansas.
During Clinton's eight years as president, the United
States experienced the longest boom to date in the
nation's history. More than 20 million new jobs were
added. It helped keep his popularity figures up despite
political hardships and scandals. The most attention was
aroused by the Monica Lewinsky scandal that broke out in
1998. Clinton's sexual relationship with the young
intern at the White House and his denials of the affair
led to him being brought before state law, which only
happened to another sitting president in US history
(Nixon resigned before he was brought before national
law). After a series of tear-jerking trips, Clinton
managed to be dismissed and the process was partly a
setback for the Republican Party.
George W Bush wins after HD rash
The 2000 presidential election ended extremely
smoothly. Only five dramatic weeks after Election Day,
Republican George W Bush, son of former President George
Bush, was declared victorious. It happened when the
United States Supreme Court stopped an initial
recalculation of ballots in several Florida electoral
districts. The court ruling meant that Bush won the
electoral college victory (see Political system) with
the least possible overweight, despite his opponent, the
outgoing Vice President Al Gore, having received just
over half a million more votes in total. It was the
first time since the 19th century that the winning
presidential candidate had not received the most votes.
Terrorist acts 2001
On September 11, 2001, the United States was hit by
the worst terrorist acts in its history. A group of
Islamist terrorists flew with hijacked aircraft into two
skyscrapers at the World Trade Center in New York City,
causing them to collapse. A third hijacked plane flew
into the Pentagon Defense Headquarters in Washington,
where the devastation also grew. A fourth plane crash
landed in Pennsylvania after passengers overpowered the
hijackers. Nearly 3,000 people were killed in the worst
attack on the United States since Japan's attack on
Pearl Harbor in 1941.
In the crisis that ensued, Americans from virtually
all political camps closed behind President Bush.
Congress gave him free hands. Bush tightened US
terrorist laws (see Democracy and Rights)) and launched
an international campaign to crush terrorism. In
October, the United States and Britain attacked
Afghanistan. The country's ruling Taliban
(ultra-Orthodox Islamists) were accused of providing a
haven for those responsible for the terrorist attacks,
that is, Saudi Usama bin Ladin and his terror network
al-Qaeda. In a resolution, the UN Security Council had
recognized "the United States' right to self-defense,"
which was interpreted by many as a clear sign of US
military action in defense of terrorism. While US
aircraft fired and bombed from the air, Taliban hostile
Afghan forces advanced to the ground and eventually
conquered virtually all of Afghanistan from the Taliban.
The war on terrorism
The cost of Bush's war on terrorism, combined with
tax cuts, helped turn the former federal budget surplus
into large deficits. The economic problems weakened
Bush's position, as did domestic political disputes.
In his fight against terrorism, President Bush wanted
to rally the outside world to a joint front against Iraq
to overthrow leader Saddam Hussein, who was accused of
possessing weapons of mass destruction. When it became
clear that the UN Security Council would not support an
invasion (unlike 1991), the United States went on an
attack on its own, with the support of Britain and a
number of "willing nations". The Iraqis unexpectedly
offered weak resistance. Baghdad was inaugurated in
April 2003 and after just a month Bush declared that the
war was essentially over. But US troops remained in the
country to provide security, contribute to
reconstruction and establish a democratic regime.
No weapons of mass destruction
The Iraq war and clear signals that the United States
was prepared to act militarily on its own to avert
terror threats contributed to more tense relations with
many European countries and anti-American sentiment was
strengthened, especially in the Arab world. The war on
Iraq also divided US opinion, especially as the military
presence waned at the same time as the number of killed
American soldiers shot up. Also, no weapons of mass
destruction were found.
Nevertheless, many regarded Bush as an effective
leader in the fight against terrorism. He was re-elected
in 2004 when he defeated Democratic candidate Senator
John Kerry.
However, as the security situation in Iraq worsened,
support for the president declined. The discontent
deepened when Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 caused
severe flooding in New Orleans, Louisiana. Over 1,200
people lost their lives and property damage was
estimated at over $ 100 billion. The Bush administration
was criticized for lack of preparedness and slow federal
relief efforts.
In the 2006 congressional elections, Democrats
regained control of Congress after twelve years of
Republican domination in both chambers. The majority of
Democrats made it harder for the president to pursue his
politics.
Obama elected during crisis autumn
In the autumn of 2008, a growing economic crisis
underwent an acute situation that led many to fear a
financial meltdown. Bush presented a rescue package
passed by Congress, supported by more Democrats than
Republicans. Many conservatives had difficulty accepting
government intervention in the economy.
The package was adopted one month before the November
presidential election. The situation favored Democratic
candidate Barack Obama, Senator from Illinios. Obama, of
mixed American and Kenyan descent, had already enthused
many with his message of "change" and managed to reach
out to Americans who had previously not bothered to
vote. He won a clear victory over Republican candidate
John McCain, with, among other things, 95 percent of the
black vote and the support of a majority of young people
and Latinos. Many considered it an historic victory over
racism in the United States that an African American was
elected president.
The congressional election was also a great success
for the Democrats, who strengthened their majority in
both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
One of the new president's first steps was to present
a comprehensive stimulus package to bring life into the
crippled economy. Congress approved the package in
February 2009. Obama received little support from
Republicans, though by including tax cuts in the crisis
package he sought to establish a cooperation between the
party blocs. A new law was also adopted with fundamental
changes to the banking and finance regulations.
According to the president, the lack of clear rules lay
behind the financial crisis.
Contested health insurance reform
One of Obama's most important election promises was a
health insurance reform. This had been discussed for
decades, to address the fact that many Americans lacked
health insurance - while health care accounted for a
larger portion of the economy in the United States than
in any other country. After intensive lobbying and a
certain triumph in Congress, Obama and the Democrats
succeeded in pushing the reform in port, without the
support of a single Republican. In March 2010, the
President signed the new law that came to be called "Obamacare"
(see Social Conditions).
The government's success was clouded by an oil spill
that occurred when a drilling rig exploded in the Gulf
of Mexico in April. Only after three months was the leak
sealed and the oil disaster was considered the worst in
the seas that ever occurred. The Obama administration
has been criticized for not acting fast enough and for
lack of control of oil drilling companies.
Impact on the Tea Party movement
The crisis-hit economy, combined with President
Obama's declining popularity with voters, led to a
staggering defeat of Democrats in the 2010 House of
Representatives election. to stop Obama's policies and
prevent him from being re-elected. In the Senate, where
only a third of the seats were at stake, the Democrats
managed to retain a scarce majority.
The new balance of power in Congress meant that
Obama's ability to push through his policies drastically
decreased. The remaining two years of his first
presidential term were characterized by political
paralysis. The polarization between Democrats and
Republicans grew deeper.
Obama re-elected
At the beginning of autumn 2012, a slight improvement
in the economy was noticed, among other things,
unemployment decreased. The turnaround helped Obama get
re-elected in November when he defeated Republican
counterpart Mitt Romney, who went to election with
promises to get the "disastrous economy" in order. In
Congress, Republicans retained their majority in the
House of Representatives while Democrats continued to
take over in the Senate. The political stalemate
continued and effectively put an end to new legislation
in important areas.
When it comes to climate policy, Obama chose to act
outside Congress. In the summer of 2013, he presented a
climate plan with several new directives to the
Environmental Protection Agency, decisions that did not
require congressional approval (see Natural Resources,
Energy and the Environment).
Trouble about the federal budget
Political disagreement was noticeable not least in
terms of the economy and how the budget deficit would be
kept in check. In a couple of rounds, Congress kept the
entire world economy on the sidewalk because of
disagreement over the terms for raising the ceiling for
government debt, which is normally routinely approved.
Settlements were approved several times at the last
moment, before the state was forced to suspend its
payments. But in October 2013, the lockout became total,
since Republicans demanded that Obamacare be stopped. As
a result, parts of the federal state apparatus were shut
down and hundreds of thousands of federal employees were
allowed to stay at home without pay for just over two
weeks. At the last moment, before the US payments abroad
could also be suspended, an agreement was reached that
opened the federal administration and extended the
state's ability to borrow.
Still, the Washington paralysis continued in 2014. In
the congressional election, Republicans also took
control of the Senate. That meant that during the last
two years of his presidency, Obama became even more
committed than before.
The shooting death of a black teenager in August 2014
in Ferguson outside Saint Louis, Missouri became the
starting point for widespread protests against police
violence against blacks and other minorities. The
activist movement Black Lives Matter (BLM) that emerged
the year before, following a case when a man was freed
from the murder of a black teenager in Florida, gathered
people across the country in protest against police
violence and racism, and became a factor in the upcoming
election movement.
Trump is elected president
When the primary elections for the 2016 presidential
election kicked off at the beginning of the year, as
many as twelve people were in the Republican starting
field. Among them, many saw the controversial real
estate billionaire and reality TV star Donald Trump as
an unlikely candidate. But he soon took the lead and in
May it was clear that Trump secured the nomination. The
Democrat's leading candidate was Hillary Clinton, wife
of former President Bill Clinton and Secretary of State
during Obama's first term in office. M a Clinton got
more than expected for the nomination against Bernie
Sanders, senator from Vermont who, with an
establishment-critical left message, was especially
enthusiastic about young voters. Only in June was
Clinton's nomination completed.
The election movement became unusually "dirty". Trump
argued, among other things, that Hillary Clinton should
sit in jail because of her negligence in handling email
when she was foreign minister, and in the election
debates he discussed Bill Clinton's infidelity dealings.
Hillary Clinton criticized Trump for sexist and racist
statements and warned of his lack of knowledge of
foreign policy. Prominent Republicans went out during
the election debate and declared that they did not
intend to vote for Trump, and some even said they
intended to support Clinton instead.
Opinion polls indicated a takeover for Clinton, but
on election day in November, it was clear that Trump had
won, despite nearly 3 million more voters voting for
Clinton. This could happen when Trump, by a small
margin, took home several of the important wave master
states, such as Florida and Pennsylvania (see further
Calendar). Republicans backed somewhat in the
congressional elections but retained their majority in
both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
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